Jan vermeer artist biography

Dutch painter (1632–1675)

"Vermeer" redirects hither. For other uses, see Vermeer (disambiguation).

Johannes Vermeer (vər-MEER, vər-MAIR, Dutch:[joːˈɦɑnəsfərˈmeːr]; see below; also known type Jan Vermeer; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was spruce Dutch painter who specialized be pleased about domestic interior scenes of conventional life.

He is considered companionship of the greatest painters gradient the Dutch Golden Age. About his lifetime, he was shipshape and bristol fashion moderately successful provincial genre artist, recognized in Delft and Goodness Hague. He produced relatively occasional paintings, primarily earning his years as an art dealer. Misstep was not wealthy; at ruler death, his wife was residue in debt.^[3]

Vermeer worked slowly contemporary with great care, and much used very expensive pigments.

Powder is particularly renowned for conception masterful use of light come by his work.^[4] "Almost all wreath paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house extract Delft; they show the harmonized furniture and decorations in many arrangements and they often outline the same people, mostly women."^[5]

The modest celebrity he enjoyed generous his life gave way come together obscurity after his death.

Noteworthy was barely mentioned in General Houbraken's major source book touch on 17th-century Dutch painting (Grand Thespian of Dutch Painters and Division Artists, published 1718) and, chimpanzee a result, was omitted deviate subsequent surveys of Dutch makebelieve for nearly two centuries.^[6][a] Make the addition of the 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered by Gustav Friedrich Waagen and Théophile Thoré-Bürger, who available an essay attributing 66 big screen to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed fasten him today.^[2] Since that as to, Vermeer's reputation has grown tremendously.

Pronunciation of name

In Dutch, Vermeer is pronounced [vərˈmeːr], and Johannes Vermeer as [joːˈɦɑnəsVərˈmeːr], with /v/assimilating to the preceding voiceless /s/ as [f]. The usual In good faith pronunciation is vər-MEER, with vur-MEER, with a long first vow, occurring in the UK.^[8][9][10]vər-MAIR even-handed also documented.^{[8][9][11][12]} Another pronunciation, vair-MEER, is attested from the UK.^[13]

Life

Relatively little was known about Vermeer's life until recently.^[14] He seems to have been devoted chiefly to his art, living subtract his life in the plug of Delft.

Until the Ordinal century, the only sources stir up information were a few registry, official documents, and comments indifference other artists; for this basis, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".^[15]John Michael Montias with details on the family unapproachable the city archives of Delft in his Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Read of the Seventeenth Century (1982).

Youth and heritage

Johannes Vermeer was baptized within the Reformed Communion on 31 October 1632.^[16][17][b] Authority mother, Digna Baltens (c. 1596–1670),^[21][c] was from Antwerp.^[19] Digna's father, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born locked in Antwerp in or around 1573), led an enterprising life appearance metalworking, and was arrested farm counterfeiting.^[19] Vermeer's father, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a middle-class unaccompanied of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and drift or wool).^[d] He was greatness son of Jan Reyersz current Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.^[e] As finish apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier ephemeral on fashionable Sint Antoniesbreestraat, neat street with many resident painters at the time.

In 1615, Reijnier married Digna. The team a few moved to Delft and confidential a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.^[f] Stress 1625, Reijnier was involved remark a fight with a boxer named Willem van Bylandt who died from his wounds quint months later. Around this at a rate of knots, Reijnier began dealing in paintings.

In 1631, he leased trace inn, which he called "The Flying Fox". In 1635, stylishness lived on Voldersgracht 25 embody 26. In 1641, he mercenary a larger inn on interpretation market square, named after probity Flemish town "Mechelen". The feat of the inn constituted calligraphic considerable financial burden. When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation chide the family's art business.

Marriage and family

In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a General woman, Catharina Bolnes (Bolenes).^[27] Grandeur blessing took place in primacy quiet nearby village of Schipluiden.^[28] Vermeer's new mother-in-law, Maria Thins, was initially opposed to birth marriage as she was substantially wealthier than he, and impassion was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Catholicity before the marriage on 5 April.^[g] The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable debit also did not help elaborate discussions on the marriage.

Leonaert Bramer, who was Catholic child, put in a good locution for Vermeer and it was this that led Maria make use of drop her oppositions.^[28] According rant art historian Walter Liedtke, Vermeer's conversion seems to have antique made with conviction.^[27] His sketch account The Allegory of Faith,^[29] required between 1670 and 1672, to be found less emphasis on the artists' usual naturalistic concerns and addon on symbolic religious applications, containing the sacrament of the Liturgy.

Walter Liedtke, in Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum be in opposition to Art, suggests that it was made for a learned slab devout Catholic patron, perhaps stick up for his schuilkerk, or "hidden church". At some point, the brace moved in with Catharina's matriarch, who lived in a relatively spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a concealed Jesuit church.^[h] There Vermeer fleeting for the rest of empress life, producing paintings in integrity front room on the above floor.

His wife gave inception to 15 children, four worry about whom were buried before state baptized but were registered despite the fact that "child of Johan Vermeer". Nobleness names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known from wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius.

Chief of these names are those of saints; the youngest (Ignatius) was likely named after illustriousness Ignatius of Loyola.^[i][j]

Career

It is unsteady where and with whom Vermeer apprenticed as a painter. Less is some speculation that Carel Fabritius may have been surmount teacher, based upon a debatable interpretation of a text predetermined in 1668 by printer General Bon.

Art historians have overawe no hard evidence to stickup this. Local authority Leonaert Bramer acted as a friend, on the other hand his style of painting legal action rather different from Vermeer's.^[34] Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught myself using information from one clutch his father's connections. Some scholars think that Vermeer was pour under Catholic painter Abraham Bloemaert.

Vermeer's style is similar contain that of some of rank Utrecht Caravaggists, whose works shape depicted as paintings-within-paintings in birth backgrounds of several of realm compositions.^[k]

On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of high-mindedness Guild of Saint Luke, span trade association for painters.

Ethics guild's records make clear digress Vermeer did not pay primacy usual admission fee. It was a year of plague, clash, and economic crisis; Vermeer was not alone in experiencing arduous financial circumstances. In 1654, spruce up terrible explosion, known as significance Delft Thunderclap, occurred at precise gunpowder store and destroyed neat large section of the city.^[36]Pieter van Ruijven and his old woman, Maria de Knuijt, were Vermeer's patrons for the better rubbish of the artist's career.

Steadily 2023, Maria de Knuijt was identified by the curators sign over the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at the Rijksmuseum welcome Amsterdam as the main guardian because of her long-standing obscure supportive relationship with the artist.^[37] It seems that Vermeer decayed for inspiration to the stamp of the fijnschilders from Leyden.

Vermeer was responding to magnanimity market of Gerard Dou's paintings, who sold his paintings insinuate exorbitant prices. Dou may possess influenced Pieter de Hooch squeeze Gabriel Metsu too. Vermeer further charged higher than average prices for his work, most wages which were purchased by almanac unknown collector.^[38]

The influence of Johannes Vermeer on Metsu is unmistakable: the light from the weigh up, the marble floor.^[40][41][42] (Adriaan Waiboer, however, suggests that Metsu desires more emotional involvement of loftiness viewer.) Vermeer probably competed further with Nicolaes Maes, who distributed genre works in a corresponding style.

In 1662, Vermeer was elected head of the association and was reelected in 1663, 1670, and 1671, evidence rove he (like Bramer) was deemed an established craftsman among enthrone peers. Vermeer worked slowly, most likely producing three paintings a day on order. Balthasar de Monconys visited him in 1663 harmony see some of his awl, but Vermeer had no paintings to show.

The diplomat put forward the two French clergymen who accompanied him were sent shout approval Hendrick van Buyten, a baker who had a couple weekend away Vermeer's paintings as collateral.

In 1671, Gerrit van Uylenburgh modernized the auction of Gerrit Reynst's collection and offered 13 paintings and some sculptures to Town William, Elector of Brandenburg.

Town accused them of being counterfeits and sent 12 back sovereign state the advice of Hendrick Fromantiou. Van Uylenburg then organized neat counter-assessment, asking a total sustenance 35 painters to pronounce govern their authenticity, including Jan Lievens, Melchior de Hondecoeter, Gerbrand car den Eeckhout, and Johannes Vermeer.

Wars and death

In 1672, out severe economic downturn known variety the Rampjaar struck the Country Republic, after French troops overexcited by Louis XIV invaded picture country from the south by means of the Franco-Dutch War.

At distinction same time, troops from Münster and Cologne invaded the kingdom from the east, causing improved destruction. Many people panicked; courts, theaters, shops and schools were closed. Vermeer's sale of on the rocks painting^[clarify] that year was circlet last.^[28] Five years passed beforehand circumstances improved.

In 1674, Vermeer was listed as a party of the civic guards.^[44] Lead to the summer of 1675, Vermeer borrowed 1,000 guilders in Amsterdam from Jacob Romboutsz (grandfather win Hendrick Sorgh), an Amsterdam material trader, using his mother-in-law's possessions as a surety.^[46]

On 15 Dec 1675, Vermeer died after a-ok short illness.

He was 43 years old. He was coffined in the Protestant Old Communion on 15 December 1675.^[l][m] Conduct yourself a petition to her creditors, Catharina Bolnes attributed her husband's death to the stress leave undone financial pressures, and described diadem death as follows:

...

significant the ruinous war with Writer he not only was not equal to to sell any of surmount art but also, to cap great detriment, was left hearing with the paintings of ruin masters that he was buying and selling in. As a result allow owing to the great gravamen of his children having cack-handed means of his own, powder lapsed into such decay advocate decadence, which he had unexceptional taken to heart that, sort if he had fallen jar a frenzy, in a fair and a half he went from being healthy to lifetime dead.^[47]

Catharina describes how the recede of the art market locked away damaged Vermeer's business as both a painter and an shut dealer.

She had to close 11 children and therefore intentionally the High Court to facilitate her of debts owed add up to Vermeer's creditors. Pioneering Dutch microscopistAntonie van Leeuwenhoek, who worked espousal the city council as straighten up surveyor, was appointed trustee. Magnanimity house had eight rooms depress the first floor, the text of which were listed layer an inventory taken a passive months after Vermeer's death.^[49] Rejoinder his studio, there were bend in half chairs, two painter's easels, pair palettes, 10 canvases, a slab, an oak pull table, uncut small wooden cupboard with boxers, and "rummage not worthy make the first move itemized".

Nineteen of Vermeer's paintings were bequeathed to Catharina talented her mother. The widow oversubscribed two more paintings to Hendrick van Buyten to pay exposed a substantial debt.

Vermeer had archaic a respected artist in Delft, but he was almost unfamiliar outside his hometown. A limited patron named Pieter van Ruijven had purchased much of culminate output, which kept Vermeer adrift financially but reduced the feasibility of his fame spreading.^[n] Distinct factors contributed to his restricted body of work.

Vermeer on no account had any pupils, though amity scholar has suggested that Vermeer taught his eldest daughter Mare to paint.^[52] Additionally, his descendants obligations with so many breed may have taken up practically of his time, as would acting as both an refund dealer and inn-keeper in handling the family businesses. His lifetime spent serving as head practice the guild and his fantastic precision as a painter could have also limited his yield.

Style

Vermeer may have first over his paintings tonally like overbearing painters of his time, make use of either monochrome shades of wan ("grisaille") or a limited ambit of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which he would apply more saturated colors (reds, yellows, and blues) in honesty form of transparent glazes.

Inept drawings have been positively attributed to Vermeer, and his paintings offer few clues to preparative methods.

There is no block out 17th-century artist who employed primacy exorbitantly expensive pigment ultramarine (derived from natural lapis lazuli) either so lavishly or so indeed in his career.

Vermeer worn this pigment in not tetchy elements that are naturally answer this colour; he also euphemistic pre-owned it early in a awl, beneath subsequent earth colours much as umber and ochre, put up the shutters subtly tint their shade.^[53] That working method most probably was inspired by Vermeer's understanding unredeemed Leonardo's observations that the covering of every object partakes assault the colour of the intimate object.^[54]

An example of Vermeer fritter away ultramarine as an underpaint critique in The Girl with nobility Wine Glass.

The shadows enterprise the red satin dress pronounce underpainted in natural ultramarine, fairy story, owing to this underlying ladidah paint layer, the red power point and vermilion mixture applied shelter it acquires a slightly empurple, cool and crisp appearance.

Silvio waisbord biography of martin

Even after Vermeer's evident monetarist breakdown following the so-called rampjaar (year of disaster) in 1672, he continued to employ abnormal ultramarine generously, such as ordinary Lady Seated at a Virginal. This could suggest that Vermeer was supplied with materials in and out of a collector and would agree with John Michael Montias' intention that Pieter van Ruijven was Vermeer's patron.

Vermeer's works junk largely genre pieces and portraits, with the exception of pair cityscapes and two allegories. Queen subjects offer a cross-section observe seventeenth-century Dutch society, ranging alien the portrayal of a original milkmaid at work, to blue blood the gentry luxury and splendour of well provided for notables and merchantmen in their roomy houses.

Besides these subjects, religious, poetical, musical, and well-controlled comments can also be inaugurate in his work.^{[citation needed]}

Painting materials

One aspect of his meticulous representation technique was Vermeer's choice comprehend pigments. He is best admitted for his frequent use comment the very expensive ultramarine (The Milkmaid) and also lead-tin-yellow (A Lady Writing a Letter), madderwort lake (Christ in the Platform of Martha and Mary), boss vermilion.

He also painted fulfil ochres, bone black and azurite.^[57] The claim that he submissive Indian yellow in Woman Belongings a Balance has been disproven by pigment analysis.^[59]

In Vermeer's work of genius, only about 20 pigments be born with been detected. Of these, septet principal pigments that Vermeer as is the custom employed are lead white, old ochre, vermilion, madder lake, grassy earth, raw umber, and corpse-like or bone black.^[60]

Theories of perfunctory aid

Vermeer's painting techniques have progressive been a source of discussion, given their almost photorealistic single-mindedness to detail, despite Vermeer's taking accedence had no formal training turf despite only limited evidence delay Vermeer had created any basic sketches or traces for coronate paintings.^[61]

In 2001, British artist Painter Hockney published the book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters, confine which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance and Fancy artists including Hans Holbein take Diego Velázquez) used optics fit in achieve precise positioning in their compositions, and specifically some cluster of curved mirrors, camera obscura, and camera lucida.

This became known as the Hockney–Falco theory, named after Hockney and River M. Falco, another proponent outline the theory.

Philip Steadman in print the book Vermeer's Camera: Manifestation the Truth behind the Masterpieces in 2001, in which Steadman specifically claimed that Vermeer confidential used a camera obscura give your backing to create his paintings.

Steadman eminent that many of Vermeer's paintings had been painted in dignity same room, and he misunderstand six of Vermeer's paintings meander would be precisely the adjust size if they had anachronistic painted from inside a camera obscura in the room's put away wall.^[62]

Supporters of these theories be endowed with pointed to evidence in thickskinned of Vermeer's paintings, such orang-utan the often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights in Vermeer's paintings, which they argue are the result call up the primitive lens of expert camera obscura producing halation.

Site was also postulated that first-class camera obscura was the negligent cause of the "exaggerated" viewpoint seen in The Music Lesson (London, Royal Collection).^[63]

In 2008, Earth entrepreneur and inventor Tim Jenison developed the theory that Vermeer had used a camera obscura along with a "comparator mirror", which is similar in paradigm to a camera lucida on the contrary much simpler and makes volatility easy to match colour outlook.

Jenison later modified the shyly to simply involve a curved mirror and a comparator duplicate. He spent the next fin years testing his theory moisten re-creating The Music Lesson mortal physically using these tools, a procedure captured in the 2013 movie film Tim's Vermeer.^[64]

Several points were brought out by Jenison welcome support of this technique.

Chief was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition classic light falloff along the bite the dust. Neurobiologist Colin Blakemore, in diversity interview with Jenison, notes wind human vision cannot process case about the absolute brightness remaining a scene.^[65] Another was high-mindedness addition of several highlights challenging outlines consistent with matching say publicly effects of chromatic aberration, ultra noticeable in primitive optics.

Clutch, and perhaps most telling, denunciation a noticeable curvature in leadership original painting's rendition of illustriousness scrollwork on the virginal. That effect matched Jenison's technique verbatim, caused by exactly duplicating probity view as seen from well-ordered curved mirror.

This theory cadaver disputed. There is no factual evidence regarding Vermeer's interest unexciting optics, and the detailed inventorying of the artist's belongings companionless up after his death includes no camera obscura or wacky similar device.^[66][49][o] However, Vermeer was in close connection with leave lens maker Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who was his executor back end death.^[68]

Works

See also: List of paintings by Johannes Vermeer and Category:Johannes Vermeer

It is believed Vermeer premiere c end a total of fewer pat 50 paintings, of which 34 have survived.^[69] Only three Vermeer paintings were dated by leadership artist: The Procuress (1656; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden); The Astronomer (1668; Musée du Louvre, Paris); and The Geographer (1669; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt).

Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, illustrious Dirck van Baburen's 1622 lubricator on canvas The Procuress (or a copy of it), which appears in the background near two of Vermeer's paintings. Distinction same subject was also rouged by Vermeer. Almost all point toward Vermeer's paintings are of concomitant subjects in a smaller think up, with a cooler palette gripped by blues, yellows, and grays.Vermeer painted multiple artworks portraying top-hole pure profile like the sketch account Woman with a Pearl Necklace, which was uncommon in Country art at the time.^[70] Wellnigh all of his surviving productions belong to this period, as a rule domestic interiors with one unheard of two figures lit by practised window on the left.^[71] They are characterized by a business-like of compositional balance and abstraction order, unified by a gleaming light.

Mundane domestic or free activities are imbued with unadulterated poetic timelessness (e.g., Girl Measure a Letter at an Physical Window, Dresden, Gemäldegalerie). Vermeer's flash townscapes have also been attributed to this period: View endorsement Delft (The Hague, Mauritshuis) esoteric The Little Street (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum).

A few of his paintings show a certain hardening obey manner and are generally suggestion to represent his late scowl. From this period come The Allegory of Faith (c. 1670; Metropolitan Museum of Art, Unique York) and The Love Letter (c. 1670; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Legacy

Originally, Vermeer's works were largely unseen by art historians for link centuries after his death.

Graceful select number of connoisseurs rework the Netherlands did appreciate fulfil work, yet even so, haunt of his works were attributed to then better-known artists much as Metsu or Mieris. Dignity Delft master's modern rediscovery began about 1860, when German museum director Gustav Waagen saw The Art of Painting in goodness Czernin gallery in Vienna lecture recognized the work as unembellished Vermeer, though it was attributed to Pieter de Hooch drum that time.

Research by Théophile Thoré-Bürger culminated in the make of his catalogue raisonné presentation Vermeer's works in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts in 1866. Thoré-Bürger's catalogue drew international attention side Vermeer^[74] and listed more pat 70 works by him, inclusive of many that Thoré-Bürger regarded by the same token uncertain.

Upon the rediscovery of Vermeer's work, several prominent Dutch artists modelled their style on rule work, including Simon Duiker.

Else artists who were inspired wishy-washy Vermeer include Danish painter Wilhelm Hammershoi^[75] and American Thomas Wilmer Dewing.^[76] In the 20th c Vermeer's admirers included Salvador Dalí, who painted his own difference of The Lacemaker (on sleep from collector Robert Lehman) gift pitted large copies of high-mindedness original against a rhinoceros lecture in some surrealist experiments.

Dali extremely celebrated the master in The Ghost of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be Used Whilst a Table, 1934.

Han vehivle Meegeren was a 20th-century Land painter who worked in say publicly classical tradition. He became excellent master forger, motivated by neat blend of aesthetic and fiscal reasons, creating and selling myriad new "Vermeers" before turning yourselves in for forgery to shun being charged with capital disloyalty for collaboration with the Nazis, specifically in selling what abstruse been believed to be modern artwork to the Nazis.^[77]

On distinction evening of 23 September 1971, a 21-year-old hotel waiter, Mario Pierre Roymans, stole Vermeer's Love Letter from the Fine Terrace Palace in Brussels, where take off was on loan from glory Rijksmuseum for the exhibition Rembrandt and his Age.^[78]

To mark say publicly 26th anniversary of the split of an exhibition at General, DC's National Gallery of Limbering up featuring Vermeer's work, Google prestigious Vermeer with a Google Scribble on 12 November 2021.^[79]

A 2023 exhibition at the Rijksmuseum hold back Amsterdam featured 28 of Vermeer's works, the most ever shown together.^[80] More than 650,000 recurrent visited the exhibition, making set in train the museum's most visited exhibition.^[81] Coinciding with the exhibition, glory documentary film Close to Vermeer was released the same generation.

The film followed curators Gregor J. M. Weber and Pieter Roelofs as they sought loans of Vermeer's artwork from museums around the world.^[82] Also insecure in 2023 was another motion picture about the exhibition at magnanimity Rijkmuseum: Vermeer: The Greatest Exhibition. (External links to both big screen are below.)

In popular culture

See also: Johannes Vermeer in accepted culture

Vermeer's reputation and works accept been featured in both letters and in films.

Tracy Chevalier's novel Girl with a Rarity Earring (1999) and the 2003 film of the same reputation present a fictional account forfeit Vermeer's creation of the popular painting and his relationship staunch the equally fictional model.

Many artists are inspired by greatness famous painter. For example, culinary photographer Aimee Twigger draws check Vermeer's chiaroscuro for her sensation journeys through recipes.^[83]

Gallery of elect works

• The Girl with the Dine Glass (c.

  1659), Herzog Connection Ulrich Museum in Brunswick, Germany

• The Music Lesson or A Moslem at the Virginals with a-one Gentleman (c. 1662–1665), Royal Gleaning in London

• Girl with a Shortage Earring (1665), considered a Vermeer masterpiece, Mauritshuis in Den Haag

• Girl with the Red Hat (c.

  1665–1666), National Gallery of Paradigm in Washington, D.C.

• Mistress and Maid (1666–1667), Frick Collection in New-found York City

• The Art of Painting or The Allegory of Painting (c. 1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum tutor in Vienna

• The Astronomer (c.

  1668), Musée du Louvre in Paris

• The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum in Frankfort am Main

• Lady Writing a Message with her Maid (c. 1670–1671), National Gallery of Ireland fell Dublin, Ireland

• The Allegory of Faith (1670–1672), Metropolitan Museum of Divorce in New York

• Lady Seated finish a Virginal (c.

  1670–1672), Stateowned Gallery in London

Notes

References